python bytes

1# utf-8 is used here because it is a very common encoding, but you
2# need to use the encoding your data is actually in.
3bytes = b'abcde'
4bytes.decode("utf-8") 
5'abcde'

1>>> (1024).to_bytes(2, byteorder='big')
2b'\x04\x00'
3>>> (1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big')
4b'\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x00\x04\x00'
5>>> (-1024).to_bytes(10, byteorder='big', signed=True)
6b'\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xff\xfc\x00'
7>>> x = 1000
8>>> x.to_bytes((x.bit_length() + 7) // 8, byteorder='little')
9b'\xe8\x03'
10

1>>> ''.join(['A', 'B', 'C'])
2'ABC'
3>>> ''.join({'A': 0, 'B': 0, 'C': 0}) # note that dicts are unordered
4'ACB'
5>>> '-'.join(['A', 'B', 'C'])  # '-' string is the seprator
6'A-B-C'
7

1def bit_length(self):
2    s = bin(self)       # binary representation:  bin(-37) --> '-0b100101'
3    s = s.lstrip('-0b') # remove leading zeros and minus sign
4    return len(s)       # len('100101') --> 6
5